1450s
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The 1450s decade ran from January 1, 1450, to December 31, 1459.
Events
1450
January – December
- February 7 – John de la Pole, 2nd Duke of Suffolk , marries Lady Margaret Beaufort . [1]
- February 26 – Francesco Sforza enters Milan after a siege, becoming Duke of the city-state, and founding a dynasty that will rule Milan for a century.
- March – French troops under Guy de Richemont besiege the English commander in France , Edmund Beaufort, 1st Duke of Somerset , in Caen .
- April 15 – Battle of Formigny : French troops under the Comte de Clermont defeat an English army under Sir Thomas Kyriel and Sir Matthew Gough, which was attempting to relieve Caen .
- May 8 – Jack Cade's Rebellion : Kentishmen revolt against King Henry VI of England .
- May 9 – Abdal-Latif Mirza , a Timurid dynasty monarch, is assassinated.
- May 13 – Charles VIII of Sweden , also serving as Carl I of Norway, is declared deposed from the latter throne, in favor of Christian I of Denmark .
- June 18 – Battle of Solefields (Sevenoaks): Jack Cade 's rebels are driven from London by loyal troops.
- July 6 – Caen surrenders to the French .
- July 12 – Jack Cade is slain in a skirmish.
- August 12 – Cherbourg , the last English territory in Normandy , surrenders to the French .
- October 5 – Jews are expelled from Lower Bavaria , by order of Duke Ludwig IX .
- November 3 – The University of Barcelona is founded.
- November 23 – First Siege of Krujë : Albanian troops are victorious, forcing an Ottoman army of approximately 100,000 men to retreat from Albania .
Date unknown
- Machu Picchu ( Quechua : Machu Pikchu, "Old mountain"), a pre-Columbian Inca site located 2,400 meters (7,875 ft) above sea level, is believed to be under construction. [2]
- A religious sacrifice of over a hundred children is performed around this time, outside of the ancient city of Chan Chan (near modern Trujillo ), on the north coast of Peru . [3] [4]
- Johannes Gutenberg has set up his movable type printing press , as a commercial operation in Mainz , by this date. [5]
1451
January – December
- January 7 – Pope Nicholas V issues a Papal Bull [6] to establish The University of Glasgow ; classes are initially held in Glasgow Cathedral .
- February 3 – Murad II , Sultan of the Ottoman Empire , dies and is succeeded (on February 18 ) by his son, Mehmed II .
- February 14 – Louis XI of France marries Charlotte of Savoy .
- April 11 – Celje acquires market town status and town rights, by orders from Count Frederic II of Celje.
- April 19 – In the Delhi Sultanate , the Afghan Lodi Dynasty succeeds the Turkish Sayyid Dynasty .
- June 30 – French troops under Jean de Dunois invade Guyenne , and capture Bordeaux .
- August 20 – The French capture Bayonne , the last English stronghold in Guyenne .
- October – After assassinating Bogdan II of Moldavia , Petru Aron takes up the throne.
- October 28 – Revolt of Ghent : Ghent takes up arms against Philip the Good , Duke of Burgundy .
Date unknown
- The Great Peacemaker along with Jigonhsasee and Hiawatha , found the Haudenosaunee , commonly called the Iroquois Confederacy
1452
January – December
- February – Alexăndrel retakes the throne of Moldavia , in his long struggle with Petru Aron .
- February 22 – William Douglas, 8th Earl of Douglas is killed by James II of Scotland , at Stirling Castle .
- March 17 – Reconquista – Battle of Los Alporchones (around the city of Lorca in Murcia ): The combined forces of the Kingdom of Castile , and its subsidiary kingdom of Murcia , defeat the Emirate of Granada . [7]
- March 19 – Frederick III, Holy Roman Emperor , becomes the last to be crowned in Rome . [8]
- May 31 – Revolt of Ghent : Philip the Good , Duke of Burgundy, officially declares war on Ghent .
- June 18 – Pope Nicholas V issues the bull Dum Diversas , legitimising the colonial slave trade .
-
October
- English troops under John Talbot, 1st Earl of Shrewsbury , land in Guyenne , France, and retake most of the province without a fight.
- Byzantine–Ottoman Wars : The Ottoman governor of Thessaly , Turakhan Beg , breaks through the Hexamilion wall for the fourth time, and ravages the Peloponnese Peninsula to prevent the Byzantine Despotate of the Morea from assisting Constantinople , during the final Ottoman siege of the imperial capital. [9]
Date unknown
- A major volcanic eruption, 1452/1453 mystery eruption , has a subsequent global cooling effect (the eruption releases more sulfate than any other event in the previous 700 years).
- Portuguese navigator Diogo de Teive discovers the islands of Corvo and Flores , in the Azores .
- Battle of Bealach nam Broig , a Scottish clan battle.
- Edinburgh officially becomes the capital of the Kingdom of Scotland . [10]
1453
January – December
- April – Tarabya and Studius are taken by the Ottoman Empire , in preparation for the assault on Constantinople , as are the Prince Islands , by the Ottoman fleet under Admiral Baltaoglu.
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Zonaro_GatesofConst.jpg/150px-Zonaro_GatesofConst.jpg)
- April 6 – May 29 – Siege and Fall of Constantinople : The Ottoman Sultan Mehmed the Conqueror puts a decisive final end to the Roman Empire , nearly one and a half thousand years after its foundation by Augustus , by capturing the capital, Constantinople . [11] Mortars are (perhaps) used in battle for the first time in this action. The consequent closure of the traditional overland route from Western Europe to the Far East , and need to identify new maritime routes, leads to the Age of Discovery , and ends the Middle Ages . [12]
- May 22 – May 1453 lunar eclipse , a partial eclipse, is visible during the siege of Constantinople.
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Battle_of_Castillon.jpg/150px-Battle_of_Castillon.jpg)
- July 17 – Battle of Castillon : In the last pitched battle of the Hundred Years' War , the French under Jean Bureau defeat the English under the Earl of Shrewsbury , who is killed. [13]
- July 23 – Battle of Gavere in Flanders : Philip the Good , Duke of Burgundy, is victorious over the rebels of Ghent , leading to surrender of their city and the end of the Revolt of Ghent .
- October 19 – The French recapture Bordeaux , ending the Hundred Years' War and leaving the English retaining only Calais on French soil.
- October 28 – Ladislaus the Posthumous is crowned King of Bohemia , although George of Poděbrady remains in control of the government.
- November 10 – Sejo of Joseon kills his enemy General Kim Jong-seo and gains control of the government in Joseon Korea (where this rebellion is called Gyeyujeongnan ).
1454
January – December
- February 4 – Thirteen Years' War : The Secret Council of the Prussian Confederation sends a formal act of disobedience to the Grand Master , and the citizens of Toruń rebel against the Teutonic Knights , beginning the conflict.
- March 6 – Casimir IV of Poland renounces allegiance to the Teutonic Knights .
- March 27 – Richard Plantagenet, Duke of York , becomes Protector for King Henry VI of England , who is in a catatonic state.
- April 9 – Treaty of Lodi : Francesco Sforza forms a triple alliance between the Duchy of Milan , the Republic of Florence and Kingdom of Naples . [14]
- August – In Moldavia , Petru Aron retakes the throne from Alexăndrel .
- September 18 – Thirteen Years' War – Battle of Chojnice : The Polish army is defeated by a smaller but more professional Teutonic army.
- December – King Henry VI of England having regained his sanity dismisses the Duke of York as Protector.
Date unknown
- The press of Johannes Gutenberg (at Mainz on the Rhine) produces the first printed documents bearing a date.
- Isaac Zarfati sends a circular letter to Rhineland , Swabia , Moravia and Hungary , praising the happy conditions of the Jews under the crescent, in contrast to the "great torture chamber" under the cross, and urging them to come to the Ottoman Empire . [15]
- The Statutes of Nieszawa are enacted in Poland .
- The Drought of One Rabbit is recorded in Aztec history.
1455
January – December
- January 8 – Pope Nicholas V publishes Romanus Pontifex , an encyclical addressed to King Afonso V of Portugal , which sanctions the conquest of non-Christian lands, and the reduction of native non-Christian populations to 'perpetual slavery'. (Later there will be a dramatic reversal when, in 1537 , the bull Sublimis Deus of Pope Paul III forbids the enslavement of non-Christians.)
- February 23 – The Gutenberg Bible is the first book printed with movable type . [16]
- April 8 – Pope Calixtus III succeeds Pope Nicholas V , as the 209th pope .
- Spring – The Wars of the Roses begin in England .
- May 1 – Battle of Arkinholm : Forces loyal to King James II of Scotland defeat the supporters of the Earl of Douglas .
- May 22 – First Battle of St Albans : Richard, Duke of York , defeats and captures King Henry VI of England . [17]
- November 15 – The conflict between Vladislav II of Wallachia and John Hunyadi escalates, so the latter decides to support Vlad the Impaler for the throne of Wallachia , the following year.
1456
January – December
- May 18 – Second Battle of Oronichea (1456) : Ottoman Forces of 15,000 are sent to capture Albania , but are met and swiftly defeated by Skanderbeg 's smaller forces.
- June 9 – Halley's Comet makes an appearance, as noted by the humanist scholar Platina .
- July 7 – A retrial of Joan of Arc acquits her of heresy, 25 years after her execution.
- July 22 – Battle of Nándorfehérvár (Belgrade) : The Hungarians under John Hunyadi rout the Turkish army of Sultan Mehmed II . The noon bell ordered by Pope Callixtus III commemorates the victory throughout the Christian world (and hence is still rung).
- August 20 – Vladislav II , reigning Prince of Wallachia , is killed in hand-to-hand combat by Vlad the Impaler , who succeeds him.
- October 17 – The University of Greifswald is established, making it the second oldest university in Northern Europe . Due to border changes, from 1648 to 1815 it was the oldest in Sweden , and from 1815 to 1945 the oldest in Prussia .
- December 5 – Two earthquakes in central Italy kills 12,000–70,000 people. [18]
Date unknown
- Lazar Branković becomes despot of Serbia .
- Alvise Cadamosto discovers some of the Cape Verde Islands.
- Diogo Gomes reaches the Geba River in Guinea Bissau, and explores the Gambia River .
- Emperor Zara Yaqob of Ethiopia founds the city of Debre Berhan .
- Muscovy and the Novgorod Republic conclude the Treaty of Yazhelbitsy .
- Petru Aron becomes the first ruler of Moldavia to pay tribute to the Ottomans.
1457
January – December
- February 11 – After years of captivity and absence from the Ming throne , the Zhengtong Emperor of China is reinstated, as the Tianshun Emperor .
- February 24 – Charles VIII of Sweden is declared deposed. The Archbishop of Sweden , Jöns Bengtsson Oxenstierna , and statesman Erik Axelsson Tott become co-regents of Sweden . The throne is then offered to Christian I of Denmark and Norway .
- March 6 – King James II of Scotland decrees that ". . . ye futebawe and ye golf be uterly cryt done and not usyt . . ", the first historical mention of the game of golf .
- April 12 – Ştefan cel Mare secures the throne of Moldavia , which he retains for the next 47 years.
- June 23 – Christian I is elected king of Sweden, ending the war between Sweden and Denmark and restoring the Kalmar Union .
- June 29 – The Dutch city of Dordrecht is devastated by fire. [19]
- August 14 – The Mainz Psalter , the second major book printed with movable type in the West, the first to be wholly finished mechanically (including colour), and the first to carry a printed date, is printed for the Elector of Mainz .
- September 2 – Battle of Ujëbardha : One of Skanderbeg 's most important victories is won against the Ottoman army, in the open field.
Date unknown
- Albrechts University is founded at Freiburg im Breisgau .
- Edo Castle is built by Ōta Dōkan in modern-day Tokyo .
1458
January – December
- January 24 – Matthias Corvinus becomes king of Hungary , at age 14. [20]
- March 25 – The Loveday is staged in London , by which Henry VI of England attempts to unite the warring factions who have triggered the War of the Roses . [21]
- August 19 – Pope Pius II succeeds Pope Callixtus III , as the 210th pope. [22]
- October 24 – King Afonso V of Portugal conquers Ksar es-Seghir , in North Africa . [23]
Date unknown
- Magdalen College, Oxford , is founded. [24]
- George of Poděbrady becomes king of Bohemia . [25]
- The Ottoman authorities issue a decree to protect the Acropolis , after they conquer Athens . [26]
- The Jewish community is expelled from Erfurt (Germany); their houses are sold, and the synagogue turned into an arsenal. [27]
- Moctezuma I , Tlatoani of Tenochtitlán, leads an expedition to the city-state Coixtlahuaca in Mixtec territory, but is defeated.
- A major volcano erupts . [28]
1459
January – December
- January 18 – The Order of Our Lady of Bethlehem is founded by Pope Pius II , to defend the island of Lemnos .
- September 23 – Wars of the Roses : Battle of Blore Heath in England – Yorkists under Richard Neville, 5th Earl of Salisbury , defeat a Lancastrian force. [29]
- October 12 – Wars of the Roses: With a royal force advancing on his fortress at Ludlow , Richard Plantagenet, Duke of York , flees to Ireland, while his ally Richard Neville, 16th Earl of Warwick (Warwick the Kingmaker, eldest son of the Earl of Salisbury) goes to Calais .
Date unknown
- The Wallachian town of Bucharest is first mentioned. [30]
- The city of Jodhpur , in western India, is founded by Rao Jodha of Marwar .
- Richard, Duke of York , Lord Lieutenant of Ireland , returns on a second visit to Ireland. [31] The Irish Parliament, meeting at Drogheda , upholds his authority against Henry VI , and an English Act of Attainder .
- Richard Hygons , English composer, begins fifty years of service at Wells Cathedral .
Religion
- King Thomas of Bosnia forces the clergy of the Bosnian Church into exile.
- According to a legend, the wedding of Christian Rosenkreuz takes place.
Significant people
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Births
1450
- February 12 – Yejong of Joseon , Joseon King (d. 1469 )
- May 18 – Piero Soderini , Florentine statesman (d. 1513 )
- June 22 – Eleanor of Naples, Duchess of Ferrara (d. 1493 )
- July 25 – Jakob Wimpfeling , Renaissance humanist (d. 1528 )
- August 18 – Marko Marulić , Croatian poet (d. 1524 )
- September 25 – Ursula of Brandenburg, Duchess of Münsterberg-Oels and Countess of Glatz (d. 1508 )
- November 12 – Jacques of Savoy, Count of Romont , Prince of Savoy (d. 1486 )
-
date unknown
- William Catesby , English politician (d. 1485 )
- Bartolomeo Montagna , Italian painter (d. 1523 )
- Heinrich Isaak , German-Dutch composer (d. 1517 )
- John Cabot , English explorer (d. 1499 )
-
probable
- Kamāl ud-Dīn Behzād , Persian leader of the Herat school
- Hieronymus Bosch , Dutch painter (d. 1516 )
- Gaspar Corte-Real , Portuguese explorer (d. 1501 )
- Juan de la Cosa , Spanish navigator and cartographer (d. 1510 )
- Josquin des Prez , Dutch composer (d. 1521 )
- Heinrich Isaac , Franco-Flemish composer (d. 1517 )
- Hugh Oldham , Bishop of Exeter (d. 1519 )
- Pietro Antonio Solari , Italian architect (d. 1493 )
- Petrus Thaborita , Dutch historian and monk (d. 1527 )
- Nyai Gede Pinateh , Javanese merchant (d. 1500 )
1451
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Ridolfo_del_Ghirlandaio_-_Ritratto_di_Cristoforo_Colombo_%281520%29.jpg/120px-Ridolfo_del_Ghirlandaio_-_Ritratto_di_Cristoforo_Colombo_%281520%29.jpg)
- January 14 – Franchinus Gaffurius , Italian composer (d. 1522 )
- January 29 – John, Prince of Portugal , Prince of Portugal (d. 1451)
- February 17 – Raffaello Maffei , Italian theologian (d. 1522 )
- March 5 – William Herbert, 2nd Earl of Pembroke , English earl (d. 1491 )
- March 9 – Amerigo Vespucci , Italian explorer (d. 1512 ) [32]
- April 22 – Queen Isabella I of Castile , Castillian queen regnant and first queen of a united Spain (by marriage to Ferdinand of Aragon) (d. 1504 ) [33]
- May 2 – René II, Duke of Lorraine (d. 1508 )
- May 17 – Engelbert II of Nassau , Count of Nassau-Vianden and Lord of Breda (1475–1504) (d. 1504 )
- June 1 – Giles Daubeney, 1st Baron Daubeney (d. 1508 )
- July 10 – James III of Scotland (d. 1488 ) [34]
- September 5 – Isabel Neville, Duchess of Clarence , elder daughter of Richard Neville (d. 1476 ) [35]
- November 29 – Elisabeth of Brandenburg, Duchess of Württemberg (d. 1524 )
-
date unknown
- Christopher Columbus , Italian explorer (d. 1506 ) [36]
- Ignatius Noah of Lebanon , Syriac Orthodox patriarch of Antioch (d. 1509 ). [37]
1452
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/Santa_Joana%2C_Princesa_de_Portugal.jpg/110px-Santa_Joana%2C_Princesa_de_Portugal.jpg)
- February 6 – Joanna, Princess of Portugal (d. 1490 )
-
February 14
- Davide Ghirlandaio , Italian painter and mosaicist (d. 1525 ) [38]
- Pandolfo Petrucci , tyrant of Siena (d. 1512 )
- March 10 – King Ferdinand II of Aragon , Aragonese king and first king of a united Spain (by marriage to Isabella of Castile) (d. 1516 ) [39]
- April 15 – Leonardo da Vinci , Italian artist and inventor (d. 1519 ) [40]
- April 19 – King Frederick of Naples (d. 1504 ) [41]
- May 18 – Henry the Younger of Poděbrady , Bohemian nobleman (d. 1492 )
-
July 27
- Ludovico Sforza , Duke of Milan (d. 1508 ) [42]
- Lucrezia Crivelli , mistress of Ludovico Sforza (d. 1508 )
- August 12 – Abraham Zacuto , Spanish Jewish astronomer, astrologer, mathematician, rabbi and historian (d. 1515 )
- September 21 – Girolamo Savonarola , Italian religious reformer (d. 1498 ) [43]
- October 2 – King Richard III of England (d. 1485 ) [44]
- December 6 – Antonio Mancinelli , Italian humanist pedagogue and grammarian (d. 1505 )
- December 10 – Johannes Stöffler , German mathematician (d. 1531 )
-
Date unknown
- Diogo Cão , Portuguese explorer (d. 1486 )
- Lucrezia Crivelli , mistress of Ludovico Sforza of Milan (d. 1508 ) (approximate date)
1453
- January 1 – Bernardin Frankopan , Croatian nobleman, diplomat and soldier (d. 1529 )
- February 6 – Girolamo Benivieni , Florentine poet (d. 1542 )
- March 2 – Johannes Engel , German doctor, astronomer and astrologer (d. 1512 ) [45]
- March 3 – Philip II, Count of Waldeck -Eisenberg (1486–1524) (d. 1524 )
- March 25 – Giuliano de' Medici , co-ruler of Florence with Lorenzo de' Medici (d. 1478 )
- April 18 – Margaret of Brandenburg , abbess of the Poor Clares monastery at Hof (d. 1509 )
- May 13 – Mary Stewart, Countess of Arran , Scottish princess (d. 1488 )
- June 10 – Francesco Soderini , Catholic cardinal (d. 1524 )
- September 1 – Gonzalo Fernández de Córdoba , Spanish general and statesman (d. 1515 )
- October 13 – Edward of Westminster, Prince of Wales (d. 1471 ) [46]
- November 13 – Christoph I, Margrave of Baden-Baden (1475–1515) (d. 1527 )
- November 17 – Alfonso, Prince of Asturias (d. 1468 )
- date unknown – Jacob Obrecht , Flemish composer (d. 1505 )
- probable – Afonso de Albuquerque , Portuguese admiral (d. 1515 )
1454
- June 3 – Bogislaw X, Duke of Pomerania (1474–1523) (d. 1523 )
- June 16 – Joanna of Aragon, Queen of Naples (d. 1517 )
- July 14 – Poliziano , Italian humanist (d. 1494 )
- September 4 – Henry Stafford, 2nd Duke of Buckingham , English politician (d. 1483 )
- September 24 – Gerold Edlibach , Swiss historian (d. 1530 )
- November 25 – Catherine Cornaro , Queen of Cyprus (d. 1510 )
-
date unknown
- Domenico Maria Novara da Ferrara , Italian astronomer (d. 1504 )
- Pinturicchio , Italian painter (d. 1513 )
- Choe Bu , Korean official and venturer to China (d. 1504 )
- Alexander Stewart, Duke of Albany (d. 1485 )
1455
- January 9 – William IV, Duke of Jülich-Berg , Count of Ravensberg (d. 1511 )
- January 29 – Johann Reuchlin , German-born humanist and scholar (d. 1522 )
- February 2 – King John of Denmark , Norway, and Sweden (d. 1513 ) [47]
-
March 3
- King John II of Portugal (d. 1495 ) [48]
- Ascanio Sforza , Italian Catholic cardinal (d. 1505 )
- March 15 – Pietro Accolti , Italian Catholic cardinal (d. 1532 )
- April 17 – Andrea Gritti , Doge of Venice (d. 1538 ) [49]
- May 16 – Wolfgang I of Oettingen , German count (d. 1522 )
- June 1 – Anne of Savoy , Savoy royal (d. 1480 )
- July 9 – Frederick IV of Baden , Dutch bishop (d. 1517 )
- July 15 – Queen Yun , Korean queen (d. 1482 )
- August 2 – John Cicero, Elector of Brandenburg (d. 1499 )
- August 15 – George, Duke of Bavaria (d. 1503 )
- November 9 – John V, Count of Nassau-Siegen , Stadtholder of Guelders and Zutphen (d. 1516 )
-
date unknown
- Peter Vischer the Elder , German sculptor (approximate date) (d. 1529 )
- Estefania Carròs i de Mur , Spanish educator (approximate date) (d. 1511 )
- Raden Patah , Javanese sultan, founder of the Demak Sultanate (d. 1518 )
- María de Ajofrín , Spanish visionary (d. 1489 )
- Nicholas Barnham , English knight, killed in the War of the Roses (d. 1485 )
- Angelo da Vallombrosa , Italian jurist and abbot (d. 1530 )
1456
- March – Jan Łaski , Polish nobleman (d. 1531 )
- March 1 – Vladislaus II , king of Bohemia, Hungary and Croatia (d. 1516 )
- June 11 – Anne Neville , queen consort of Richard III of England (d. 1485 ) [50]
- June 23 – Margaret of Denmark, Queen of Scotland , consort of James III of Scotland (d. 1486 ) [51]
- June 25 – Henry V of Rosenberg , Bohemian nobleman (d. 1489 )
- October 16 – Ludmila of Poděbrady , Regent of the duchies of Brzeg and Oława from 1488 (d. 1503 )
- November 7 – Margaret of Bavaria, Electress Palatine and hereditary princess of Bavaria-Landshut (d. 1501 )
- November 8 – Queen Gonghye , Korean royal consort (d. 1474 )
-
date unknown
- Jeanne Hachette (Laisné), French peasant heroine
- Antonia di Paolo di Dono , Italian artist and daughter of Paolo di Dono (d. 1491 )
- Jan Lubrański , Polish bishop (d. 1520 )
1457
- January 18 – Antonio Trivulzio, seniore , Roman Catholic cardinal (d. 1508 )
- January 28 – King Henry VII of England (d. 1509 ) [52]
- February 2 – Peter Martyr d'Anghiera , Italo-Spanish historian and diplomat (d. 1526 )
- February 13 – Mary of Burgundy , sovereign duchess regnant of Burgundy, married to Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor (d. 1482 )
- August 20 – Seongjong of Joseon , King of Joseon (d. 1494 )
- September 21 – Hedwig Jagiellon, Duchess of Bavaria , Polish princess (d. 1502 )
- November 16 – Beatrice of Naples , Hungarian queen (d. 1508 )
-
date unknown
- Jacob Obrecht , Dutch composer (d. 1505 )
- George Nevill, Duke of Bedford (d. 1483 )
-
probable
- Sebastian Brant , German humanist and satirist (d. 1521 ) [53]
- Filippino Lippi , Florentine painter (d. 1504 ) [54]
- Thomas West, 8th Baron De La Warr (d. 1525 )
1458
- February 15 – Ivan the Young , Ruler of Tver (d. 1490 )
- April 9 – Camilla Battista da Varano , Italian saint (d. 1524 ) [55]
- April 13 – John II, Duke of Cleves (d. 1521 ) [56]
- May 2 – Eleanor of Viseu , Portuguese princess and later Queen of Portugal (d. 1525 ) [57]
- August 18 – Lorenzo Pucci , Italian Catholic cardinal (d. 1531 )
- October 3 – Saint Casimir , Prince of Poland and Duke of Lithuania (d. 1484 ) [58]
- October 16 – Adolph II, Prince of Anhalt-Köthen , German prince (d. 1526 )
- December 25 – Amago Tsunehisa , Japanese warlord (d. 1541 )
-
date unknown
- Jacob Obrecht , Dutch composer (d. 1505 )
- Jacopo Sannazaro , Italian poet (d. 1530 ) [59]
-
probable
- Thomas Docwra , Grand Prior of the English Knights Hospitaller (d. 1527 )
- Richard Grey , half brother of Edward V of England (d. 1483 )
1459
- January 25 – Paul Hofhaimer , Austrian organist and composer (d. 1537 )
- March 2 – Pope Adrian VI (d. 1523 ) [60]
- March 6 – Jakob Fugger , German banker (d. 1525 )
- March 22 – Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor (d. 1519 ) [61]
- May 15 – John I, Count Palatine of Simmern (1480–1509) (d. 1509 )
- July – Mingyi Nyo , founder of the Toungoo Dynasty of Burma (Myanmar) (d. 1530 )
- July 11 – Kaspar, Count Palatine of Zweibrücken , German nobleman (d. 1527 )
- October 6 – Martin Behaim , German explorer and cartographer (d. 1507 )
- December 22 – Sultan Cem , pretender to the Ottoman throne (d. 1495 )
- December 27 – King John I Albert of Poland (d. 1501 )
-
date unknown
–
Edward Poynings
, Lord Deputy to King Henry VII of England (d.
1521
)
- Christina Brask , Swedish writer and translator (d. 1520 )
- probable – Lorenzo di Credi , Florentine painter and sculptor (d. 1537 )
- date unknown – Jheronimus de Clibano , Dutch composer (d. 1503 )
- date unknown – Jean Mouton , French composer (d. 1522 )
Deaths
1450
- January 9 – Adam Moleyns , English courtier and Bishop of Chichester
- February 9 – Agnès Sorel , mistress of Charles VII of France (b. c. 1422 ) [62]
- April 8 – Sejong the Great of Joseon , ruler of Korea (b. 1397 )
- May 2 – William de la Pole, 1st Duke of Suffolk , English military leader (born 1396 )
- May 9 – Abdal-Latif Mirza , ruler of Transoxania
- July 2 – Ranuccio Farnese il Vecchio , Italian condottiero (b. c. 1390 )
- July 4 – James Fiennes, 1st Baron Saye and Sele , English soldier and politician (b. c. 1395)
- July 18 – Francis I, Duke of Brittany (b. 1414 )
- July 26 – Cecily Neville, Duchess of Warwick (b. 1424 )
- August 15 – Alberto da Sarteano , Italian Franciscan friar and papal legate (b. 1385 )
- August 27 – Reginald West, 6th Baron De La Warr , English politician (b. 1395 )
- August 31 – Isabella of Navarre, Countess of Armagnac (b. 1395 )
- September 16 – Louis Aleman , French cardinal
- September 22 – William Tresham , English politician
- October 1 – Leonello d'Este, Marquis of Ferrara , Italian noble (b. 1407 )
- November 3 – Paola Colonna , Lady of Piombino (b. c. 1378 )
- November 5 – John IV, Count of Armagnac (b. 1396 )
1451
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/II._Murat.jpg/100px-II._Murat.jpg)
- January 7 – Antipope Felix V (b. 1383 )
- January 18 – Henry II, Count of Nassau-Siegen , Co-ruler of Nassau-Siegen (1442–1451) (b. 1414 ) [63]
- February 3 – Murad II , Ottoman Sultan (b. 1404 )
- June – ‘Abdullah , Timurid Empire ruler
- July 11 – Barbara of Cilli , Holy Roman Empress, queen consort of Hungary and Bohemia (b. 1392 )
- October – Bogdan II of Moldavia , assassinated by Petru Aron
-
date unknown
- Stefan Lochner , German painter (b. 1400 )
- John Lydgate , English monk and poet (b. 1370 )
- al-Mustakfi II , Abbasid Caliph
1452
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Conrad_IV_arrests_his_brother_Conrad_VII.jpg/110px-Conrad_IV_arrests_his_brother_Conrad_VII.jpg)
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Reinhard_III._von_Hanau.jpg/110px-Reinhard_III._von_Hanau.jpg)
-
February 10
- Švitrigaila , Grand Prince of Lithuania
- Michał Bolesław Zygmuntowicz (Michael Žygimantaitis) , Prince of Black Ruthenia
- February 14 – Konrad VII the White , Duke of Oleśnica
- February 22 – William Douglas, 8th Earl of Douglas (b. 1425 )
- April 20 – Reinhard III, Count of Hanau (1451–1452) (b. 1412 )
- May – John Stafford , Archbishop of Canterbury [64]
- October – Nicholas Close , English bishop
- probable – Gemistus Pletho , Greek philosopher
1453
- February 28 – Isabella, Duchess of Lorraine (b. 1400 )
-
May 29
- Constantine XI Palaiologos , last Byzantine Emperor (b. 1405 )
- Athanasius II of Constantinople , Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople
- Theophilos Palaiologos , Byzantine grammarian, humanist and mathematician. Cousin of Constantine XI.
- Demetrios Palaiologos Metochites , last governor of Constantinople
- Orhan Çelebi , Ottoman prince (b. 1412 )
-
June 1
- Çandarli Halil Pasha , Ottoman grand vizier
- Giovanni Giustiniani , Italian captain
- June 2 – Álvaro de Luna, Duke of Trujillo , Constable of Castille
- June 3 – Loukas Notaras , last megas doux of the Byzantine Empire (b. 1402 )
- June 4 – Andronikos Palaiologos Kantakouzenos , last Grand Domestic of the Byzantine Empire
-
July 17
- Dmitry Shemyaka , Grand Prince of Moscow
- John Talbot, 1st Earl of Shrewsbury , English military leader [13]
- July 20 – Enguerrand de Monstrelet , French chronicler
- October 13 – Jacob, Margrave of Baden-Baden (1431-1453) (b. 1407 )
- October 20 – Yi Jing-ok , Korean military General (b. 1399 ) [65]
- December 24 – John Dunstaple , English composer (b. 1390 )
- Demetrius III , former co-king of Georgia (b. c. 1413 )
1454
- March 22 – John Kemp , Archbishop of Canterbury
- July 20 – King John II of Castile (b. 1405 )
- December 10 – Ignatius Behnam Hadloyo , Syriac Orthodox Patriarch of Antioch. [66]
-
date unknown
- Chiara Zorzi , regent of Athens
- William Turnbull , Bishop of Glasgow
- Robert Wingfield , English politician (b. 1403 )
1455
- February 18 – Fra Angelico , Italian painter (b. 1395 ) [67]
- March 24 – Pope Nicholas V (b. 1397 ) [68]
- April 1 – Zbigniew Oleśnicki , Polish Catholic cardinal and statesman (b. 1389 )
- May 1 – Archibald Douglas, Earl of Moray (in battle)
-
May 22
(killed at the
First Battle of St Albans
):
- Henry Percy, 2nd Earl of Northumberland , Lancastrian commander (b. 1393 ) [17]
- Edmund Beaufort, 2nd Duke of Somerset , Lancastrian commander (b. 1406 ) [17]
- Thomas Clifford, 8th Baron de Clifford , Lancastrian commander (b. 1414 ) [17]
- September 3 – Alonso Tostado , Spanish Catholic bishop
- October 22 – Johannes Brassart , Flemish composer
- October 28 – Guillaume-Hugues d'Estaing , French Catholic cardinal
- December 1 – Lorenzo Ghiberti , Italian sculptor and metal smith (b. 1378 )
- December 2 – Isabel of Coimbra , queen of Portugal (b. 1432 )
1456
- January 17 – Elisabeth of Lorraine-Vaudémont , French translator (b. 1395 )
- August 11 – John Hunyadi , Hungarian statesman and military leader (b. c. 1406 ) [69]
- August 20 – Vladislav II of Wallachia
- October 17 – Nicolas Grenon , French composer (b. 1375 )
- October 23 – Giovanni da Capistrano , Italian saint (b. 1386 )
- November 3 – Edmund Tudor, 1st Earl of Richmond , father of King Henry VII of England (b. 1431 ) [70]
- November 9 – Ulrich II, Count of Celje (b. 1406 )
- November 25 – Jacques Cœur , French merchant (b. 1395 )
- December 4 – Charles I, Duke of Bourbon (b. 1401 )
- December 24 – Đurađ Branković , Despot of Serbia (b. 1377 )
- date unknown – Juan de Mena , Spanish poet (b. 1411 )
1457
- March 14 – Jingtai Emperor of China (b. 1428 )
- March 16 – László Hunyadi , Hungarian statesman and warrior (b. 1433 ) [71]
- May 22 – Saint Rita of Cascia , Italian saint (b. 1381 )
- August 1 – Lorenzo Valla , Italian humanist
- August 19 – Andrea del Castagno , Italian painter (b. 1421 )
- September 12 – Gabriele Sforza , Archbishop of Milan (b. 1423 ) [72]
- September 14 – Countess Palatine Margaret of Mosbach , countess consort of Hanau (b. 1432 )
- September 22 – Peter II, Duke of Brittany (b. 1418 )
- November 3 – Ludwig II, Count of Württemberg-Urach , German noble (b. 1439 )
- November 23 – King Ladislaus Posthumus of Bohemia and Hungary (b. 1440 )
- December 24 – Danjong of Joseon , King of Joseon (b. 1441 )
-
date unknown
- Abul-Qasim Babur Mirza , ruler of Khurasan (b. 1422 )
- Bartolomeu Perestrello , Portuguese navigator and explorer (b. 1395 )
1458
- January 17 – Louis I, Landgrave of Hesse , Landgrave of Hesse (1413-1458) (b. 1402 ) [73]
- February 20 – Lazar Branković , Despot of Serbia [74]
- March 25 – Íñigo López de Mendoza, 1st Marquis of Santillana , Spanish poet (b. 1398 )
- April 11 – Helena Palaiologina , Queen of Cyprus (b. 1428 )
- June 27 – King Alfonso V of Aragon (b. 1396 ) [75]
- July 28 – John II of Cyprus
- August 6 – Pope Callixtus III (b. 1378 ) [76]
- September 7 – Maria of Castile, Queen of Aragon , Queen consort of Aragon and Naples (b. 1401 )
- December 26 – Arthur III, Duke of Brittany (b. 1393 )
- date unknown – Isabelle Romée , mother of Joan of Arc
1459
- February 14 – Stephen, Count Palatine of Simmern-Zweibrücken (b. 1385 )
- March 3 – Ausiàs March , Catalan poet from Valencia (b. 1397 )
- May 2 – Antoninus of Florence , Italian archbishop (b. 1389 )
- August 27 – James of Portugal , Portuguese cardinal (b. 1433 )
- September 6 – Katharina of Nassau-Beilstein , German regent
- September 17 – Isabella of Urgell, Duchess of Coimbra , Portuguese Duchess (b. 1409 )
-
September 23
(killed at the
Battle of Blore Heath
):
- James Tuchet, 5th Baron Audley (b. 1400 )
- Thomas Dutton , English knight (b. 1421 )
- September 24 – Eric of Pomerania , King of Norway, Denmark and Sweden (b. 1382 )
- October 30 – Gian Francesco Poggio Bracciolini , Italian humanist (b. 1380 )
- November 5 – John Fastolf , English soldier [77]
- December 4 – Adolf VIII , Duke of Southern Jutland (b. 1401 )
References
- ↑ The Camden Miscellany . Camden Society. 1972. p. 209.
- ↑ "Historic Sanctuary of Machu Picchu — UNESCO World Heritage Centre" . UNESCO . 2006 . Retrieved 9 December 2006 .
- ↑ Fleur, Nicholas St (2019-03-06). "Massacre of Children in Peru Might Have Been a Sacrifice to Stop Bad Weather" . The New York Times . ISSN 0362-4331 . Retrieved 2019-12-31 .
- ↑ "What made this ancient society sacrifice its own children?" . Magazine . 2019-01-15 . Retrieved 2019-12-31 .
- ↑ Klooster, John W. (2009). Icons of invention: the makers of the modern world from Gutenberg to Gates . Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO. p. 8. ISBN 978-0-313-34745-0 .
- ↑ "University of Glasgow :: Story :: The Papal Bull" .
- ↑ Thomas Devaney (3 April 2015). Enemies in the Plaza: Urban Spectacle and the End of Spanish Frontier Culture, 1460-1492 . University of Pennsylvania Press. p. 158. ISBN 978-0-8122-9134-6 .
- ↑ "Historical Events in 1452" . OnThisDay.com . Retrieved 2017-08-08 .
- ↑ Setton, Kenneth M. (1978). The Papacy and the Levant (1204–1571), volume II : The Fifteenth Century . DIANE Publishing. p. 146. ISBN 0-87169-127-2 .
- ↑ "Why is Edinburgh the capital of Scotland?" . Edinburgh Tourist . June 20, 2018 . Retrieved 2021-07-25 .
- ↑ "What Happened In 1453" . Hisdates . Retrieved 2017-08-08 .
-
↑
Crowley, Roger (2006).
Constantinople: The Last Great Siege, 1453
. Faber.
ISBN
0-571-22185-8
.
(reviewed by
Foster, Charles (September 22, 2006).
"The Conquest of Constantinople and the end of empire"
.
Contemporary Review
. Archived from
the original
on March 27, 2007.
It is the end of the Middle Ages
) (Archived Link) - 1 2 Sir Richard Lodge (1910). The Close of the Middle Ages, 1272-1494 . Rivingtons. p. 358.
- ↑ Christina J. Moose (2005). Great Events from History: The Renaissance & early modern era, 1454-1600 . Salem Press. p. 15. ISBN 978-1-58765-215-8 .
- ↑ "Letter of Rabbi Isaac Zarfati" . Turkishjews.com . Retrieved 2016-07-09 .
- ↑ This Facsimile Page of Gutenberg's 42-line Bible (1453-1455) was Printed on the Gutenberg Press Loaned by the Gutenberg Museum of Mainz for "A Century of Progress International Exposition", Chicago, 1933, and Exhibited by the Cuneo Press, Inc . Gutenberg Press. 1933.
- 1 2 3 4 John Sadler (14 January 2014). The Red Rose and the White: The Wars of the Roses, 1453-1487 . Routledge. p. 16. ISBN 978-1-317-90518-9 .
- ↑ C. Nunziata; M. R. Costanzo (2020). "Ground Shaking Scenario at the Historical Center of Napoli (Southern Italy) for the 1456 and 1688 Earthquakes" . Pure and Applied Geophysics . Springer Science+Business Media . 177 (7): 3175–3190. doi : 10.1007/s00024-020-02426-y . S2CID 210975336 .
- ↑ "Building" . Vrienden van de Grote Kerk Dordrecht . Retrieved 2020-12-03 .
- ↑ John P. C. Matthews (2007). Explosion: The Hungarian Revolution of 1956 . Hippocrene Books. p. 74. ISBN 978-0-7818-1174-3 .
- ↑ David Grummitt (8 May 2015). Henry VI . Routledge. p. 190. ISBN 978-1-317-48260-4 .
- ↑ Jan L. de Jong (5 April 2013). The Power and the Glorification: Papal Pretensions and the Art of Propaganda in the Fifteenth and Sixteenth Centuries . Penn State Press. p. 4. ISBN 978-0-271-06237-2 .
- ↑ Vasconcelos e Sousa, Bernardo. "História de Portugal" (in Portuguese) (4th ed.). p. 182.
- ↑ "College History" . magd.ox.ac.uk . Retrieved 22 March 2019 .
- ↑ Choice: Publication of the Association of College and Research Libraries, a Division of the American Library Association . American Library Association. 1964. p. 261.
-
↑
Martin Luther D'Ooge (1909),
The Acropolis of Athens
(The acropolis of Athens
ed.), New York: Macmillan,
OL
7107840M
,
In 1458 the Turkish ruler occupied the Propylaea as a residence, and turned the Erechtheum into a harem, restoring, however, the Parthenon to the Greeks as a place of worship.
- ↑ Lemaître, Frédéric (19 September 2011). "Erfurt, ses juifs et l'UNESCO" . Le Monde (in French) . Retrieved 19 September 2011 .
- ↑ Connor, Steve (2014-07-07). "The history of the planet's biggest volcanic explosions - deep in the ice of Antarctica" . The Independent . London. Archived from the original on May 1, 2022 . Retrieved 2014-07-07 .
- ↑ John Sadler (14 January 2014). The Red Rose and the White: The Wars of the Roses, 1453-1487 . Taylor & Francis. p. 86. ISBN 978-1-317-90517-2 .
- ↑ Sonnenburg, Stephan; Baker, Laura (February 26, 2013). Branded Spaces: Experience Enactments and Entanglements . Springer Science & Business Media. p. 236. ISBN 978-3-658-01561-9 .
- ↑ The Oxford Illustrated History of Ireland. Foster, RF. Oxford University Press, Oxford. 1989
- ↑ Chase's Editors; Contemporary Books (September 2002). Chase's Calendar of Events 2003 . McGraw-Hill. p. 169. ISBN 978-0-07-139098-9 .
- ↑ Peggy K. Liss (2004). Isabel the Queen: Life and Times . University of Pennsylvania Press. p. 9. ISBN 978-0-8122-1897-8 .
- ↑ "King James III: Biography on Undiscovered Scotland" . www.undiscoveredscotland.co.uk . Retrieved 29 January 2021 .
- ↑ Amy Licence (15 April 2013). Anne Neville: Richard III's Tragic Queen . Amberley Publishing Limited. pp. 29–. ISBN 978-1-4456-1177-8 .
- ↑ "Christopher Columbus | Biography, Voyages, & Facts" . Encyclopedia Britannica . Retrieved 21 January 2021 .
- ↑ Barsoum, Aphrem (2003). The Scattered Pearls: A History of Syriac Literature and Sciences . Translated by Matti Moosa (2nd ed.). Gorgias Press. pp. 508–509 . Retrieved 14 July 2020 .
- ↑ Ira Moskowitz (1976). Great Drawings of All Time: Italian, thirteenth through nineteenth century . Kodansha International. p. 139. ISBN 978-0-87011-263-8 .
- ↑ "Ferdinand II | Biography & Facts" . Encyclopedia Britannica . Retrieved 30 June 2020 .
- ↑ "Leonardo da Vinci | Biography, Art, & Facts" . Encyclopedia Britannica . Retrieved 3 May 2019 .
- ↑ Richard J. Walsh (2005). Charles the Bold and Italy (1467-1477): Politics and Personnel . Liverpool University Press. p. 302. ISBN 978-0-85323-838-6 .
- ↑ Grolier Incorporated (1997). Academic American encyclopedia . Grolier. p. 233. ISBN 9780717220687 .
- ↑ Sandro Botticelli; Musée national du Luxembourg (France); Palazzo Strozzi (Florence, Italie). (2003). Botticelli: From Lorenzo the Magnificent to Savonarola . Skira. p. 227. ISBN 978-88-8491-565-8 .
- ↑ "Richard III | Biography & Facts" . Encyclopedia Britannica . Retrieved 26 June 2020 .
- ↑ Trimble, Virginia; Williams, Thomas R.; Bracher, Katherine; Jarrell, Richard; Marché, Jordan D.; Ragep, F. Jamil (September 18, 2007). Biographical Encyclopedia of Astronomers . Springer Science & Business Media. p. 339. ISBN 978-0-387-30400-7 .
- ↑ Charles Kidd; Christine Shaw (24 June 2008). Debrett's Peerage & Baronetage 2008 . Debrett's. p. 140. ISBN 978-1-870520-80-5 .
- ↑ Encyclopædia Britannica: A New Survey of Universal Knowledge . Encyclopædia Britannica. 1964. p. 89.
- ↑ Hourihane, Colum (2012). The Grove Encyclopedia of Medieval Art and Architecture . OUP USA. p. 217. ISBN 9780195395365 .
- ↑ Benzoni, Gino (2002). "GRITTI, Andrea" . Dizionario Biografico degli Italiani , Volume 59: Graziano–Grossi Gondi (in Italian). Rome: Istituto dell'Enciclopedia Italiana . ISBN 978-8-81200032-6 .
- ↑ Cannon, John; Hargreaves, Anne (2009). The Kings and Queens of Britain . OUP Oxford. p. 246. ISBN 9780191580284 .
- ↑ "Margaret of Denmark: Biography on Undiscovered Scotland" . www.undiscoveredscotland.co.uk . Retrieved 14 May 2019 .
- ↑ Roger Lockyer; Andrew Thrush (19 September 2014). Henry VII . Routledge. p. 7. ISBN 978-1-317-89432-2 .
- ↑ Clayton J. Drees (2001). The Late Medieval Age of Crisis and Renewal, 1300-1500: A Biographical Dictionary . Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 68. ISBN 978-0-313-30588-7 .
- ↑ Lucia Corrain (2008). The Art of the Renaissance . The Oliver Press, Inc. p. 17. ISBN 978-1-934545-04-1 .
- ↑ Saint Camilla Battista da Varano (1986). The Mental Sorrows of Jesus in His Passion . Peregrina. p. 3. ISBN 978-0-920669-05-1 .
- ↑ Woldemar Harleß. "ADB:Johann II. (Herzog von Kleve-Mark)" . Allgemeine Deutsche Biographie . Retrieved March 31, 2021 .
- ↑ Anne Commire; Deborah Klezmer (2000). Women in World History: A Biographical Encyclopedia . Yorkin Publications. p. 107. ISBN 978-0-7876-4064-4 .
- ↑ Paul Burns (15 July 2007). Butler's Saint for the Day . A&C Black. p. 103. ISBN 978-0-86012-434-4 .
- ↑ William John Kennedy; Gene Z. Hanrahan (1983). Jacopo Sannazaro and the Uses of Pastoral . University Press of New England. ISBN 978-0-87451-268-7 .
- ↑ "Adrian VI | pope" . Encyclopedia Britannica . Retrieved 20 March 2021 .
- ↑ "Maximilian I | Holy Roman emperor" . Encyclopedia Britannica . Retrieved 20 March 2021 .
- ↑ François Guizot (1885). The History of France from the Earliest Times to 1848 . J.B. Millar & Company. p. 299.
- ↑ Van den Berg, F.M. (1992). "Een Nassau's graf in Italië". In Van der Klooster, L.J.; Tiethoff-Spliethoff, M.E.; Tamse, C.A. & Elzenga, E. (eds.). Militaire entourage rondom Oranje en andere bijdragen over het Huis van Oranje. Oranje-Nassau Museum Jaarboek 1992 (in Dutch). Zutphen: Walburg Pers. p. 89. ISBN 90-6011-812-X .
- ↑ Fryde, E. B.; Greenway, D. E.; Porter, S.; Roy, I. (1996). Handbook of British Chronology (Third revised ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 233. ISBN 0-521-56350-X .
- ↑ 충강공 이징옥 장군 (in Korean)
- ↑ Barsoum, Ephrem (2003). The Scattered Pearls: A History of Syriac Literature and Sciences . Translated by Matti Moosa (2nd ed.). Gorgias Press. p. 497.
- ↑ Guido Di Piero, Known as Fra Angelico, Ca. 1395-1455 . Germany. 1998. p. 6. ISBN 978-3-8290-0246-2 .
- ↑ "Nicholas V | Vatican Library & Dum Diversas" . Encyclopedia Britannica . Retrieved 6 May 2019 .
- ↑ Kenneth Meyer Setton (1976). The Papacy and the Levant, 1204-1571 . American Philosophical Society. p. 183. ISBN 978-0-87169-127-9 .
- ↑ Miranda Jane Aldhouse-Green; Ralph Alan Griffiths; Raymond Howell; Tony Hopkins (2004). The Gwent County History: The age of the Marcher Lords, c.1070-1536 . University of Wales Press. p. 265. ISBN 978-0-7083-2072-3 .
- ↑ Zsigmond M¢ricz (1 January 1995). Be Faithful Unto Death . Central European University Press. p. 305. ISBN 978-1-85866-060-8 .
- ↑ O. J. Schnaubelt; Joseph C. Schnaubelt; Frederick Van Fleteren (1999). Augustine in Iconography: History and Legend . P. Lang. p. 339. ISBN 978-0-8204-2291-6 .
- ↑ William John Wright (1988). Capitalism, the State, and the Lutheran Reformation: Sixteenth-century Hesse . Ohio University Press. p. 46. ISBN 978-0-8214-0863-6 .
- ↑ Théoharis Stavrides (2001). The Sultan of Vezirs: The Life and Times of the Ottoman Grand Vezir Mahmud Pasha Angelović (1453-1474) . BRILL. p. 94. ISBN 90-04-12106-4 .
- ↑ E. Michael Gerli (2003). Medieval Iberia . Taylor & Francis. p. 57. ISBN 978-0-415-93918-8 .
- ↑ Annie E. McKilliam (1912). A Chronicle of the Popes from St. Peter to Pius X . G. Bell and sons, Limited. p. 388.
- ↑ James Gairdner (1895). The Paston letters, 1422-1509 A.D.: A new ed. containing upwards of four hundred letters, etc., hitherto unpublished . A. Constable. p. 444.
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